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Consultant expert, Dr. Mohamed Taha Volume 2 Wastewater use in agriculture

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Consultant expert, Dr. Mohamed Taha
Volume 2
Wastewater use in agriculture
List of acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vi
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix
Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiii
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
1.1 Objectives and general considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
1.2 Target audience, definitions and scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
1.3 Driving forces behind increasing wastewater use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.3.1 Increasing water scarcity and stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.3.2 Increasing population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.3.3 Wastewater as a resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.3.4 The Millennium Development Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.4 Organization of this Guidelines document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
2. The Stockholm Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
2.1 A harmonized approach to risk assessment/management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
2.2 Assessment of environmental exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
2.3 Assessment of health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
2.4 Tolerable health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
2.5 Health-based targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
2.6 Risk management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
2.7 Public health status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
2.7.1 Excreta-related diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
2.7.2 Schistosomiasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
2 7.3 Vector-borne diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
2.7.4 Measuring public health status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3. Assessment of health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
3.1 Microbial analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
3.1.1 Survival of pathogens in soil and on crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.2 Epidemiological evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
3.2.1 Risks to consumers of crops eaten uncooked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
3.2.2 Risks to agricultural workers and their families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
3.2.3 Risks to local communities from sprinkler irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . .45
3.2.4 Overall results for farming families and local communities . . . . . . .46
3.3 Quantitative microbial risk analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
3.4 Emerging issues: infectious diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
3.5 Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
3.5.1 Health impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
3.5.2 Assessing the risks from chemical contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
3.5.3 Emerging issues: chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
4. Health-based targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
4.1 Tolerable burden of disease and health-based targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
4.1.1 Step 1: Tolerable risk of infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
4.1.2 Step 2: QMRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.1.3 Step 3: Required pathogen reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.1.4 Step 4: Health-based protection measures to achieve required
pathogen reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
CONTENTS
iv
Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater
4.1.5 Step 5: Verification monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.1.6 Example derivation of microbial performance tar
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