Description

This theme focuses on the systematic investigation, characterization, and interpretation of subsurface geological and geotechnical conditions for engineering design and construction. It encompasses conventional and advanced site investigation techniques, geological reconnaissance, borehole exploration, soil and rock sampling, laboratory and in situ testing, cone penetration testing (CPT), standard penetration testing (SPT), seismic refraction, multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW), electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), and integrated geophysical–geotechnical characterization. Particular emphasis is placed on identifying geological boundaries, stratigraphic variations, weak layers, groundwater conditions, engineering material properties, and uncertainties arising from incomplete subsurface information.