Wind Energy Engineering By Trevor M.Letcher (2017, EBook)
Wind Energy Engineering By Trevor Letcher
1st Edition
A Handbook for Onshore and Offshore Wind Turbines
Authors: Trevor Letcher
Hardcover ISBN: 9780128094518
eBook ISBN: 9780128094297
Imprint: Academic Press
Published Date: 16 May 2017
Page Count: 622
Description
Wind Energy Engineering: A Handbook for Onshore and Offshore Wind Turbines is the most advanced, up-to-date and research-focused text on all aspects of wind energy engineering. Wind energy is pivotal in global electricity generation and for achieving future essential energy demands and targets. In this fast-moving field this must-have edition starts with an in-depth look at the present state of wind integration and distribution worldwide and continues with a high-level assessment of the advances in turbine technology and how the investment, planning, and economic infrastructure can support those innovations.
Key Features
Following is the Table of Content of the Book.
Part I
Introduction
1. Why Wind Energy?
Trevor M. Letcher
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Climate Change 3
1.3 Background 5
1.4 Advantages of Wind Energy 8
1.5 Challenges Facing the Wind Turbine Industry 10
1.6 The Potential of Wind Energy Worldwide 13
References 13
Part II
Wind Resource and Wind Energy Worldwide
2. Wind Power Fundamentals
Alexander Kalmikov
2.1 Wind Physics Basics: What Is Wind and How Wind Is
Generated 17
2.2 Wind Types: Brief Overview of Wind Power Meteorology 18
2.3 Fundamental Equation of Wind Power: Kinetic Energy
Flux and Wind Power Density 19
2.4 Wind Power Capture: Efficiency in Extracting Wind
Power 21
2.5 Conclusion 23
References 23
v
3. Estimation of Wind Energy Potential and Prediction
of Wind Power
Jing Shi and Ergin Erdem
3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 Principles for Successful Development for a Wind Assessment
Program 26
3.3 Main Aspects of a Wind Assessment Program 28
3.4 Estimating Wind Power Based on Wind Speed Measurements 33
3.5 Wind Resource Estimation Project: Scope and Methods 34
3.6 Further Considerations for Wind Speed Assessment 38
3.7 Wind Speed and Power Forecasting 39
3.8 Conclusions 44
References 44
4. Global Potential for Wind-Generated Electricity
Xi Lu and Michael B. McElroy
4.1 Introduction 51
4.2 Methodology 54
4.3 Results 58
4.3.1 Global Perspective 58
4.3.2 US Perspective 61
4.3.3 China Perspective 65
4.4 Concluding Remarks 68
Acknowledgments 71
References 71
5. The Future of Wind Energy Development in China
Pei-yang Guo, Dan-yang Zhu, Jacqueline Lam, and Victor O.K. Li
5.1 Introduction 75
5.2 Wind Energy Development in China 76
5.2.1 Overview 76
5.2.2 Electricity Market and Wind Energy Market in China 76
5.3 Wind Energy Development in China: Barriers and Drivers 80
5.3.1 Barriers to Wind Energy Development in China 81
5.3.2 Drivers of Wind Energy Development in China 86
5.4 The Future of Wind Energy Development in China 89
5.4.1
Distributed Generation Deployment and Proactive
Transmission Planning
5.4.2 Offshore Wind Power Planning 89
5.4.3 Smart Grid 90
5.4.4 Merit-Order-Based Dispatch 90
5.4.5 Pricing Improvement 91
vi Contents
5.5 Conclusion 91
Acknowledgment 92
References 92
6. Wind Power in the German System—Research and
Development for the Transition Toward a Sustainable
Energy Future
Matthias Luther, Kurt Rohrig, and Wilhelm Winter
6.1 Integration of Renewables in Germany and Europe 95
6.2 Onshore and Offshore Wind Development 99
6.3 Network Operation and Grid Development 102
6.3.1
Innovative Methods to Plan and Operate the Power
System
6.3.2 The System Operation Network Codes 108
6.3.3 The Market-Related Network Codes 108
6.3.4 The Connection-Related Network Codes 109
6.4 Further Research and Development for Wind Power
Integration 110
6.4.1 New Control Concepts for PE-Dominated Power Systems 111
6.4.2 Wind Power Forecasts 112
6.4.3 Wind Farm Clusters 114
6.4.4 Virtual Power Plants 117
6.4.5 Sector Coupling Concepts 118
6.4.6 European Wind Integration Projects and Studies 119
6.5 Summary 121
References 122
Part III
Wind Turbine Technology
7. History of Harnessing Wind Power
Magdi Ragheb
7.1 Introduction 127
7.2 Wind Machines in Antiquity 129
7.3 Islamic Civilization Windmills 130
7.4 Medieval European Windmills 132
7.5 Aegean and Mediterranean Windmills 133
7.6 Dutch and European Windmills 135
7.7 The American Windmill 138
7.8 Historical Developments 139
7.9 Windmills Applications 141
7.10 Discussion 141
References 142
Contents vii
8. Wind Turbine Technologies
Anca D. Hansen
8.1 Introduction 145
8.2 Overview of Wind Turbine Components 145
8.2.1 Aerodynamic Rotor 146
8.2.2 Transmission System 146
8.2.3 Generator 147
8.2.4 Power Electronic Interface 151
8.2.5 Control System and Wind Turbine Control Capabilities 152
8.3 Contemporary Wind Turbine Technologies 155
8.3.1 Fixed-Speed Wind Turbines (Type 1) 155
8.3.2 Limited Variable-Speed Wind Turbines (Type 2) 156
8.3.3 Variable-Speed Wind Turbines With Partial-Scale
Power Converter (Type 3) 157
8.3.4 Variable-Speed Wind Turbines With Full-Scale
Power Converter (Type 4) 158
8.4 Conclusions 159
References 159
9. Aerodynamics and Design of Horizontal-Axis
Wind Turbines
Martin O.L. Hansen
9.1 Introduction 161
9.2 A Short Description on How a Wind Turbine Works 162
9.3 1D Momentum Equations 163
9.4 Blade Element Momentum Method 167
9.4.1 The Blade Element Momentum Method 172
9.5 Use of Steady Blade Element Momentum Method 172
9.6 Aerodynamic Blade Design 178
9.7 Unsteady Loads and Fatigue 181
9.8 Brief Description of Design Process 183
References 183
10. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines: Farm and Turbine
Design
Robert Whittlesey
10.1 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines History 185
10.2 Vertical Axis Wind Farms 186
10.2.1 Initial Research on VAWT Farms 186
10.2.2 Power Density 187
10.3 Design Guidelines 188
10.3.1 Power Coefficient 189
viii Contents
10.3.2 Lift Versus Drag-Based VAWT 189
10.3.3 Starting 193
10.3.4 Blade Airfoil Choice 194
10.3.5 Blade-Tip Vortices 197
10.3.6 Blade Reynolds Number 198
10.3.7 Turbine Mass 198
10.3.8 Turbine Diameter 198
10.3.9 Number of Blades 199
10.3.10 Struts 199
10.4 Summary 200
References 200
11. Multielement Airfoils for Wind Turbines
Adam M. Ragheb and Michael S. Selig
11.1 Introduction 203
11.2 Transportation Benefits 204
11.3 Structural Benefits 205
11.4 Multielement Wind Turbine Blades 206
11.5 Other Multielement Wind Turbine Research 215
11.6 Discussion 216
Acknowledgments 217
References 218
12. Civil Engineering Aspects of a Wind Farm
and Wind Turbine Structures
Subhamoy Bhattacharya
12.1 Energy Challenge 221
12.2 Wind Farm and Fukushima Nuclear disaster 221
12.2.1 Case Study: Performance of Near Shore
Wind Farm During 2012 Tohoku Earthquake 221
12.3 Wind Farm Site Selection 224
12.3.1 Case Studies: Burbo Wind Farm
(see Fig. 12.6 for location) 226
12.3.2 ASIDE on the Economics 227
12.4 General Arrangement of a Wind Farm 228
12.5 Choice of Foundations for a Site 228
12.6 Foundation Types 228
12.6.1 Gravity-Based Foundation System 233
12.6.2 Suction Buckets or Caissons 233
12.6.3 Pile Foundations 234
12.6.4 Seabed Frame or Jacket Supporting Supported
on Pile or Caissons 235
12.6.5 Floating Turbine System 237
Contents ix
12.7 Site Layout, Spacing of Turbines, and Geology of the Site 239
12.7.1 Case Study: Westermost Rough 240
12.7.2
References
Economy of Scales for Foundation
242
13. Civil Engineering Challenges Associated With Design
of Offshore Wind Turbines With Special Reference
to China
Subhamoy Bhattacharya, Lizhong Wang, Junwei Liu, and Yi Hong
13.1 Offshore Wind Potential in China 243
13.2 Dynamic Sensitivity of OWT Structures 245
13.3 Dynamic Issues in Support Structure Design 247
13.3.1 Importance of Foundation Design 252
13.4 Types and Nature of the Loads Acting on the Foundations 254
13.4.1 Loads Acting on the Foundations 254
13.4.2
Extreme Wind and Wave Loading Condition
in Chinese Waters
13.5 Ground Conditions in Chinese Waters 260
13.5.1 Bohai Sea 261
13.5.2 Seismic Effects 264
13.6 A Note on SLS Design Criteria 265
13.7 Challenges in Analysis of Dynamic SoilStructure
Interaction 266
13.8 Foundation Design 269
13.8.1 Challenges in Monopile Foundation Design and
Installation 270
13.8.2 Jacket on Flexible Piles 271
13.9 Concluding Remarks 271
References 272
14. Numerical Methods for SSI Analysis of Offshore
Wind Turbine Foundations
Susana Lopez-Querol, Liang Cui, and Subhamoy Bhattacharya
14.1 Introduction 275
14.1.1
Need for Numerical Analysis for Carrying
out the Design
14.2 Types of Numerical Analysis 281
14.2.1 Standard Method Based on Beam on Nonlinear
Winkler Spring 281
14.2.2 Advanced Analysis (Finite Element Analysis and
Discrete Element Modeling) to Study
FoundationSoil Interaction 283
x Contents
14.3
Example Application of Numerical Analysis to Study
SSI of Monopile
285
14.3.1 Monopile Analysis Using DEM 286
14.3.2 Monopile Analysis Using FEM Using ANSYS
Software 290
References 295
15. Reliability of Wind Turbines
Shuangwen Sheng and Ryan O’Connor
15.1 Introduction 299
15.2 Fundamentals 301
15.2.1 Terminology 301
15.2.2 Taxonomy 303
15.2.3 Failure Types 304
15.3 Current Status 305
15.4 Reliability Engineering 312
15.4.1 Data Collection 312
15.4.2 Model Development 315
15.4.3 Forecasting 319
15.5 Case Studies 320
15.5.1 Gearbox Spares Planning 320
15.5.2 Pitch Bearing Maintenance Scheduling 321
15.6 Conclusions 325
Acknowledgments 325
References 325
16. Practical Method to Estimate Foundation Stiffness
for Design of Offshore Wind Turbines
Saleh Jalbi, Masoud Shadlou, and Subhamoy Bhattacharya
16.1 Introduction 329
16.2 Methods to Estimate Foundation Stiffness 332
16.2.1 Simplified Method (Closed-Form Solutions) 334
16.2.2 Standard Method 336
16.2.3 Advanced Method 336
16.3 Obtaining Foundation Stiffness From Standard and
Advanced Method 337
16.3.1 Example Problem (Monopile for Horns Rev 1) 340
16.4 Discussion and Application of Foundation Stiffness 345
16.4.1 Pile Head Deflections and Rotations 345
16.4.2 Prediction of the Natural Frequency 346
16.4.3 Comparison With SAP 2000 Analysis 349
Nomenclature 350
References 351
Contents xi
17. Physical Modeling of Offshore Wind Turbine Model
for Prediction of Prototype Response
Domenico Lombardi, Subhamoy Bhattacharya, and George Nikitas
17.1 Introduction 353
17.1.1 Complexity of External Loading Conditions 353
17.1.2 Design Challenges 355
17.1.3 Technical Review/Appraisal of New Types of
Foundations 358
17.1.4 Physical Modeling for Prediction of Prototype
Response 358
17.2 Physical Modeling of OWTs 359
17.2.1 Dimensional Analysis 360
17.2.2 Definition of Scaling Laws for Investigating OWTs 360
17.3 Scaling Laws for OWTs Supported on Monopiles 361
17.3.1 Monopile Foundation 361
17.3.2 Strain Field in the Soil Around the Laterally
Loaded Pile 361
17.3.3 CSR in the Soil in the Shear Zone 363
17.3.4 Rate of Soil Loading 364
17.3.5 System Dynamics 364
17.3.6 Bending Strain in the Monopile 365
17.3.7 Fatigue in the Monopile 365
17.3.8 Example of Experimental Investigation for Studying
Long-Term Response of 1100 Scale OWT 366
17.4 Scaling Laws for OWTs Supported on Multipod
Foundations 368
17.4.1 Typical Experimental Setups and Results 372
17.5 Conclusions 373
References 373
Part IV
Generation of Electricity
18. Energy and Carbon Intensities of Stored Wind
Energy
Charles J. Barnhart
18.1 The Need for Storage 377
18.2 Key Characteristics for Storage 378
18.3 Net Energy Analysis of Storing and Curtailing Wind
Resources 380
18.4 The Carbon Footprint of Storing Wind Energy 383
18.5 Conclusions 385
References 386
xii Contents
19. Small-Scale Wind Turbines
Patrick A.B. James and AbuBakr S. Bahaj
19.1 Introduction 389
19.2 The Fundamental Concern for Micro-Wind: The Wind
Resource 395
19.3 Building Mounted Turbines 401
19.3.1 Rural Building Mounted Turbine 405
19.3.2 Suburban Building Mounted Turbine 407
19.3.3 Urban Building Mounted Turbine 408
19.3.4 Summary Findings: Building Mounted Turbines 409
19.3.5 Field Trial Observations: Pole Mounted Turbines 411
19.4 The Future for Micro-Wind 414
19.5 Conclusions 415
Acknowledgments 416
References 416
20. Integration Into National Grids
Jurgen Weiss and T. Bruce Tsuchida
20.1 Wind Integration: What it Means and Why We Need it 419
20.2 Current/Standard Measures for Wind Integration 421
20.3 The Future of Wind Integration 429
20.4 Conclusions 434
References 435
Part V
Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy
21. Life Cycle Assessment: Meta-analysis of Cumulative
Energy Demand for Wind Energy Technologies
Michael Carbajales-Dale
21.1 Introduction 439
21.2 Wind Energy Technologies 440
21.2.1 Rotor 442
21.2.2 Nacelle 442
21.2.3 Tower 443
21.2.4 Foundation 443
21.2.5 Balance of Systems 443
21.3 Life-Cycle Assessment 444
21.3.1 Cumulative Energy Demand 444
21.3.2 Energy Payback Time 444
21.3.3 Fractional Reinvestment 445
21.4 Meta-analysis 445
21.4.1 Literature Search 445
Contents xiii
21.4.2 Literature Screening 446
21.4.3 Harmonization of Study Boundaries and Data 446
21.5 Results and Discussion 446
21.5.1 Capital Energetic Costs (CEC) 446
21.5.2 Life-Cycle Energy Costs (LCEC) 447
21.5.3 Harmonization 447
21.5.4 Components 449
21.5.5 Trends in Parameters 450
21.5.6 Net Energy Trajectory of the Global Wind Industry 450
21.6 Conclusions 452
Acknowledgments 453
References 453
Appendix A 457
Appendix B 473
22. Environmental and Structural Safety Issues
Related to Wind Energy
Kaoshan Dai, Kewei Gao, and Zhenhua Huang
22.1 Introduction 475
22.2 Wind-Energy-Induced Environmental Issues and
Countermeasures 475
22.2.1 Effects on Animals and Mitigation Strategies 476
22.2.2 Noise Problems and Possible Solutions 478
22.2.3 Visual Impacts and Mitigation 479
22.2.4 Climate Change and Considerations 480
22.3 Structural Safety Studies for Wind Turbine Towers 481
22.3.1 Wind Turbine Tower Structural Performances
Under Wind and Seismic Loads 481
22.3.2
Health Monitoring and Vibration Control
of Wind Turbine Towers
22.4 Summary 485
Acknowledgments 486
References 486
23. Wind Turbines and Landscape
Marc van Grieken and Beatrice Dower
23.1 A Passion for Landscape 493
23.2 What Is Landscape? 493
23.3 Changing Landscape 495
23.3.1 People’s Opinions 495
23.4 Technological Advancement 498
23.5 The Perception of Wind Farms 502
23.5.1 Height and Size 502
xiv Contents
23.5.2 Composition 504
23.5.3 Movement 504
23.6 Landscapes With Power Generation Objects 506
23.7 What Are the Effects of Wind Farms on Our Landscape? 508
23.7.1 Landscape Effects 509
23.7.2 Visual Effects 511
23.7.3 Landscape and Visual Effects 512
23.8 Mitigation 512
23.8.1 Strategic Approach 513
23.9 Conclusion 514
References 515
24. Global Rare Earth Supply, Life Cycle Assessment,
and Wind Energy
Zhehan Weng and Gavin M. Mudd
24.1 Background of Rare Earth Elements 517
24.2 Global REE Supply 519
24.3 REE Permanent Magnets 520
24.4 Life Cycle Assessment of the Use of REE Magnets
in Wind Turbines 522
24.5 Global Wind Energy Projections 526
24.6 Implications for Future REE Supply 529
24.7 Conclusion 531
References 532
Part VI
Financial Modeling/Wind Economics
25. Economics of Wind Power Generation
Magdi Ragheb
25.1 Introduction 537
25.2 Economic Considerations 537
25.3 Wind Energy Cost Analysis 539
25.4 Levelized Cost of Electricity 539
25.5 Net Present Value 540
25.6 Straight Line Depreciation 541
25.7 Price and Cost Concepts 542
25.8 Wind Turbines Prices 542
25.9 Intermittence Factor 542
25.10 Land Rents, Royalties, and Project Profitability 543
25.11 Project Lifetime 543
25.12 Benchmark Wind Turbine Present Value Cost Analysis 544
25.12.1 Investment 544
25.12.2 Payments 544
25.12.3 Current Income and Expenditures per Year 544
Contents xv
25.13 Incentives and Subsidies 546
25.13.1 Production Tax Credit (PTC) 546
25.13.2 Investment Tax Credit (ITC) 546
25.13.3 Renewable Energy Production Incentive (REPI) 547
25.14 Wind Turbine Present Value Cost Analysis Accounting
for the PTC 548
25.14.1 Payments 548
25.14.2 Current Income and Expenditures per Year 548
25.15 Accounting for the PTC as Well as Depreciation
and Taxes 550
25.16 Transmission and Grid Issues 553
25.17 Discussion 554
References 554
Part VII
Investment, Growth Trends, and the Future of
Wind Energy
26. Growth Trends and the Future of Wind Energy
Lauha Fried, Shruti Shukla, and Steve Sawyer
26.1 Introduction: Global Status of Wind Power
(On- and Offshore) in 2015 559
26.1.1 Asia: Remarkable Year for China 560
26.1.2 North America: Resurgence in the United States 562
26.1.3 Europe: Unparalleled Year for Germany 563
26.1.4
Latin America and the Caribbean: Brazil Continues
to Lead
26.1.5 Pacific 565
26.1.6 Africa and the Middle East 566
26.1.7 2015: Extraordinary Year Fueled by China’s
FIT Reduction Plan 566
26.2 Offshore Wind Energy 567
26.2.1 Europe Passes 11 GW Mark 570
26.2.2 UK Remains Largest Global Market 573
26.2.3 Germany Had an Exceptional Year 573
26.2.4 Netherlands: Fourth Largest Market Globally 57
1st Edition
A Handbook for Onshore and Offshore Wind Turbines
Authors: Trevor Letcher
Hardcover ISBN: 9780128094518
eBook ISBN: 9780128094297
Imprint: Academic Press
Published Date: 16 May 2017
Page Count: 622
Description
Wind Energy Engineering: A Handbook for Onshore and Offshore Wind Turbines is the most advanced, up-to-date and research-focused text on all aspects of wind energy engineering. Wind energy is pivotal in global electricity generation and for achieving future essential energy demands and targets. In this fast-moving field this must-have edition starts with an in-depth look at the present state of wind integration and distribution worldwide and continues with a high-level assessment of the advances in turbine technology and how the investment, planning, and economic infrastructure can support those innovations.
Key Features
- Contains analysis of the latest high-level research and explores real world application potential in relation to the developments
- Uses system international (SI) units and imperial units throughout to appeal to global engineers
- Offers new case studies from a world expert in the field
- Covers the latest research developments in this fast-moving, vital subject
Following is the Table of Content of the Book.
Part I
Introduction
1. Why Wind Energy?
Trevor M. Letcher
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Climate Change 3
1.3 Background 5
1.4 Advantages of Wind Energy 8
1.5 Challenges Facing the Wind Turbine Industry 10
1.6 The Potential of Wind Energy Worldwide 13
References 13
Part II
Wind Resource and Wind Energy Worldwide
2. Wind Power Fundamentals
Alexander Kalmikov
2.1 Wind Physics Basics: What Is Wind and How Wind Is
Generated 17
2.2 Wind Types: Brief Overview of Wind Power Meteorology 18
2.3 Fundamental Equation of Wind Power: Kinetic Energy
Flux and Wind Power Density 19
2.4 Wind Power Capture: Efficiency in Extracting Wind
Power 21
2.5 Conclusion 23
References 23
v
3. Estimation of Wind Energy Potential and Prediction
of Wind Power
Jing Shi and Ergin Erdem
3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 Principles for Successful Development for a Wind Assessment
Program 26
3.3 Main Aspects of a Wind Assessment Program 28
3.4 Estimating Wind Power Based on Wind Speed Measurements 33
3.5 Wind Resource Estimation Project: Scope and Methods 34
3.6 Further Considerations for Wind Speed Assessment 38
3.7 Wind Speed and Power Forecasting 39
3.8 Conclusions 44
References 44
4. Global Potential for Wind-Generated Electricity
Xi Lu and Michael B. McElroy
4.1 Introduction 51
4.2 Methodology 54
4.3 Results 58
4.3.1 Global Perspective 58
4.3.2 US Perspective 61
4.3.3 China Perspective 65
4.4 Concluding Remarks 68
Acknowledgments 71
References 71
5. The Future of Wind Energy Development in China
Pei-yang Guo, Dan-yang Zhu, Jacqueline Lam, and Victor O.K. Li
5.1 Introduction 75
5.2 Wind Energy Development in China 76
5.2.1 Overview 76
5.2.2 Electricity Market and Wind Energy Market in China 76
5.3 Wind Energy Development in China: Barriers and Drivers 80
5.3.1 Barriers to Wind Energy Development in China 81
5.3.2 Drivers of Wind Energy Development in China 86
5.4 The Future of Wind Energy Development in China 89
5.4.1
Distributed Generation Deployment and Proactive
Transmission Planning
5.4.2 Offshore Wind Power Planning 89
5.4.3 Smart Grid 90
5.4.4 Merit-Order-Based Dispatch 90
5.4.5 Pricing Improvement 91
vi Contents
5.5 Conclusion 91
Acknowledgment 92
References 92
6. Wind Power in the German System—Research and
Development for the Transition Toward a Sustainable
Energy Future
Matthias Luther, Kurt Rohrig, and Wilhelm Winter
6.1 Integration of Renewables in Germany and Europe 95
6.2 Onshore and Offshore Wind Development 99
6.3 Network Operation and Grid Development 102
6.3.1
Innovative Methods to Plan and Operate the Power
System
6.3.2 The System Operation Network Codes 108
6.3.3 The Market-Related Network Codes 108
6.3.4 The Connection-Related Network Codes 109
6.4 Further Research and Development for Wind Power
Integration 110
6.4.1 New Control Concepts for PE-Dominated Power Systems 111
6.4.2 Wind Power Forecasts 112
6.4.3 Wind Farm Clusters 114
6.4.4 Virtual Power Plants 117
6.4.5 Sector Coupling Concepts 118
6.4.6 European Wind Integration Projects and Studies 119
6.5 Summary 121
References 122
Part III
Wind Turbine Technology
7. History of Harnessing Wind Power
Magdi Ragheb
7.1 Introduction 127
7.2 Wind Machines in Antiquity 129
7.3 Islamic Civilization Windmills 130
7.4 Medieval European Windmills 132
7.5 Aegean and Mediterranean Windmills 133
7.6 Dutch and European Windmills 135
7.7 The American Windmill 138
7.8 Historical Developments 139
7.9 Windmills Applications 141
7.10 Discussion 141
References 142
Contents vii
8. Wind Turbine Technologies
Anca D. Hansen
8.1 Introduction 145
8.2 Overview of Wind Turbine Components 145
8.2.1 Aerodynamic Rotor 146
8.2.2 Transmission System 146
8.2.3 Generator 147
8.2.4 Power Electronic Interface 151
8.2.5 Control System and Wind Turbine Control Capabilities 152
8.3 Contemporary Wind Turbine Technologies 155
8.3.1 Fixed-Speed Wind Turbines (Type 1) 155
8.3.2 Limited Variable-Speed Wind Turbines (Type 2) 156
8.3.3 Variable-Speed Wind Turbines With Partial-Scale
Power Converter (Type 3) 157
8.3.4 Variable-Speed Wind Turbines With Full-Scale
Power Converter (Type 4) 158
8.4 Conclusions 159
References 159
9. Aerodynamics and Design of Horizontal-Axis
Wind Turbines
Martin O.L. Hansen
9.1 Introduction 161
9.2 A Short Description on How a Wind Turbine Works 162
9.3 1D Momentum Equations 163
9.4 Blade Element Momentum Method 167
9.4.1 The Blade Element Momentum Method 172
9.5 Use of Steady Blade Element Momentum Method 172
9.6 Aerodynamic Blade Design 178
9.7 Unsteady Loads and Fatigue 181
9.8 Brief Description of Design Process 183
References 183
10. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines: Farm and Turbine
Design
Robert Whittlesey
10.1 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines History 185
10.2 Vertical Axis Wind Farms 186
10.2.1 Initial Research on VAWT Farms 186
10.2.2 Power Density 187
10.3 Design Guidelines 188
10.3.1 Power Coefficient 189
viii Contents
10.3.2 Lift Versus Drag-Based VAWT 189
10.3.3 Starting 193
10.3.4 Blade Airfoil Choice 194
10.3.5 Blade-Tip Vortices 197
10.3.6 Blade Reynolds Number 198
10.3.7 Turbine Mass 198
10.3.8 Turbine Diameter 198
10.3.9 Number of Blades 199
10.3.10 Struts 199
10.4 Summary 200
References 200
11. Multielement Airfoils for Wind Turbines
Adam M. Ragheb and Michael S. Selig
11.1 Introduction 203
11.2 Transportation Benefits 204
11.3 Structural Benefits 205
11.4 Multielement Wind Turbine Blades 206
11.5 Other Multielement Wind Turbine Research 215
11.6 Discussion 216
Acknowledgments 217
References 218
12. Civil Engineering Aspects of a Wind Farm
and Wind Turbine Structures
Subhamoy Bhattacharya
12.1 Energy Challenge 221
12.2 Wind Farm and Fukushima Nuclear disaster 221
12.2.1 Case Study: Performance of Near Shore
Wind Farm During 2012 Tohoku Earthquake 221
12.3 Wind Farm Site Selection 224
12.3.1 Case Studies: Burbo Wind Farm
(see Fig. 12.6 for location) 226
12.3.2 ASIDE on the Economics 227
12.4 General Arrangement of a Wind Farm 228
12.5 Choice of Foundations for a Site 228
12.6 Foundation Types 228
12.6.1 Gravity-Based Foundation System 233
12.6.2 Suction Buckets or Caissons 233
12.6.3 Pile Foundations 234
12.6.4 Seabed Frame or Jacket Supporting Supported
on Pile or Caissons 235
12.6.5 Floating Turbine System 237
Contents ix
12.7 Site Layout, Spacing of Turbines, and Geology of the Site 239
12.7.1 Case Study: Westermost Rough 240
12.7.2
References
Economy of Scales for Foundation
242
13. Civil Engineering Challenges Associated With Design
of Offshore Wind Turbines With Special Reference
to China
Subhamoy Bhattacharya, Lizhong Wang, Junwei Liu, and Yi Hong
13.1 Offshore Wind Potential in China 243
13.2 Dynamic Sensitivity of OWT Structures 245
13.3 Dynamic Issues in Support Structure Design 247
13.3.1 Importance of Foundation Design 252
13.4 Types and Nature of the Loads Acting on the Foundations 254
13.4.1 Loads Acting on the Foundations 254
13.4.2
Extreme Wind and Wave Loading Condition
in Chinese Waters
13.5 Ground Conditions in Chinese Waters 260
13.5.1 Bohai Sea 261
13.5.2 Seismic Effects 264
13.6 A Note on SLS Design Criteria 265
13.7 Challenges in Analysis of Dynamic SoilStructure
Interaction 266
13.8 Foundation Design 269
13.8.1 Challenges in Monopile Foundation Design and
Installation 270
13.8.2 Jacket on Flexible Piles 271
13.9 Concluding Remarks 271
References 272
14. Numerical Methods for SSI Analysis of Offshore
Wind Turbine Foundations
Susana Lopez-Querol, Liang Cui, and Subhamoy Bhattacharya
14.1 Introduction 275
14.1.1
Need for Numerical Analysis for Carrying
out the Design
14.2 Types of Numerical Analysis 281
14.2.1 Standard Method Based on Beam on Nonlinear
Winkler Spring 281
14.2.2 Advanced Analysis (Finite Element Analysis and
Discrete Element Modeling) to Study
FoundationSoil Interaction 283
x Contents
14.3
Example Application of Numerical Analysis to Study
SSI of Monopile
285
14.3.1 Monopile Analysis Using DEM 286
14.3.2 Monopile Analysis Using FEM Using ANSYS
Software 290
References 295
15. Reliability of Wind Turbines
Shuangwen Sheng and Ryan O’Connor
15.1 Introduction 299
15.2 Fundamentals 301
15.2.1 Terminology 301
15.2.2 Taxonomy 303
15.2.3 Failure Types 304
15.3 Current Status 305
15.4 Reliability Engineering 312
15.4.1 Data Collection 312
15.4.2 Model Development 315
15.4.3 Forecasting 319
15.5 Case Studies 320
15.5.1 Gearbox Spares Planning 320
15.5.2 Pitch Bearing Maintenance Scheduling 321
15.6 Conclusions 325
Acknowledgments 325
References 325
16. Practical Method to Estimate Foundation Stiffness
for Design of Offshore Wind Turbines
Saleh Jalbi, Masoud Shadlou, and Subhamoy Bhattacharya
16.1 Introduction 329
16.2 Methods to Estimate Foundation Stiffness 332
16.2.1 Simplified Method (Closed-Form Solutions) 334
16.2.2 Standard Method 336
16.2.3 Advanced Method 336
16.3 Obtaining Foundation Stiffness From Standard and
Advanced Method 337
16.3.1 Example Problem (Monopile for Horns Rev 1) 340
16.4 Discussion and Application of Foundation Stiffness 345
16.4.1 Pile Head Deflections and Rotations 345
16.4.2 Prediction of the Natural Frequency 346
16.4.3 Comparison With SAP 2000 Analysis 349
Nomenclature 350
References 351
Contents xi
17. Physical Modeling of Offshore Wind Turbine Model
for Prediction of Prototype Response
Domenico Lombardi, Subhamoy Bhattacharya, and George Nikitas
17.1 Introduction 353
17.1.1 Complexity of External Loading Conditions 353
17.1.2 Design Challenges 355
17.1.3 Technical Review/Appraisal of New Types of
Foundations 358
17.1.4 Physical Modeling for Prediction of Prototype
Response 358
17.2 Physical Modeling of OWTs 359
17.2.1 Dimensional Analysis 360
17.2.2 Definition of Scaling Laws for Investigating OWTs 360
17.3 Scaling Laws for OWTs Supported on Monopiles 361
17.3.1 Monopile Foundation 361
17.3.2 Strain Field in the Soil Around the Laterally
Loaded Pile 361
17.3.3 CSR in the Soil in the Shear Zone 363
17.3.4 Rate of Soil Loading 364
17.3.5 System Dynamics 364
17.3.6 Bending Strain in the Monopile 365
17.3.7 Fatigue in the Monopile 365
17.3.8 Example of Experimental Investigation for Studying
Long-Term Response of 1100 Scale OWT 366
17.4 Scaling Laws for OWTs Supported on Multipod
Foundations 368
17.4.1 Typical Experimental Setups and Results 372
17.5 Conclusions 373
References 373
Part IV
Generation of Electricity
18. Energy and Carbon Intensities of Stored Wind
Energy
Charles J. Barnhart
18.1 The Need for Storage 377
18.2 Key Characteristics for Storage 378
18.3 Net Energy Analysis of Storing and Curtailing Wind
Resources 380
18.4 The Carbon Footprint of Storing Wind Energy 383
18.5 Conclusions 385
References 386
xii Contents
19. Small-Scale Wind Turbines
Patrick A.B. James and AbuBakr S. Bahaj
19.1 Introduction 389
19.2 The Fundamental Concern for Micro-Wind: The Wind
Resource 395
19.3 Building Mounted Turbines 401
19.3.1 Rural Building Mounted Turbine 405
19.3.2 Suburban Building Mounted Turbine 407
19.3.3 Urban Building Mounted Turbine 408
19.3.4 Summary Findings: Building Mounted Turbines 409
19.3.5 Field Trial Observations: Pole Mounted Turbines 411
19.4 The Future for Micro-Wind 414
19.5 Conclusions 415
Acknowledgments 416
References 416
20. Integration Into National Grids
Jurgen Weiss and T. Bruce Tsuchida
20.1 Wind Integration: What it Means and Why We Need it 419
20.2 Current/Standard Measures for Wind Integration 421
20.3 The Future of Wind Integration 429
20.4 Conclusions 434
References 435
Part V
Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy
21. Life Cycle Assessment: Meta-analysis of Cumulative
Energy Demand for Wind Energy Technologies
Michael Carbajales-Dale
21.1 Introduction 439
21.2 Wind Energy Technologies 440
21.2.1 Rotor 442
21.2.2 Nacelle 442
21.2.3 Tower 443
21.2.4 Foundation 443
21.2.5 Balance of Systems 443
21.3 Life-Cycle Assessment 444
21.3.1 Cumulative Energy Demand 444
21.3.2 Energy Payback Time 444
21.3.3 Fractional Reinvestment 445
21.4 Meta-analysis 445
21.4.1 Literature Search 445
Contents xiii
21.4.2 Literature Screening 446
21.4.3 Harmonization of Study Boundaries and Data 446
21.5 Results and Discussion 446
21.5.1 Capital Energetic Costs (CEC) 446
21.5.2 Life-Cycle Energy Costs (LCEC) 447
21.5.3 Harmonization 447
21.5.4 Components 449
21.5.5 Trends in Parameters 450
21.5.6 Net Energy Trajectory of the Global Wind Industry 450
21.6 Conclusions 452
Acknowledgments 453
References 453
Appendix A 457
Appendix B 473
22. Environmental and Structural Safety Issues
Related to Wind Energy
Kaoshan Dai, Kewei Gao, and Zhenhua Huang
22.1 Introduction 475
22.2 Wind-Energy-Induced Environmental Issues and
Countermeasures 475
22.2.1 Effects on Animals and Mitigation Strategies 476
22.2.2 Noise Problems and Possible Solutions 478
22.2.3 Visual Impacts and Mitigation 479
22.2.4 Climate Change and Considerations 480
22.3 Structural Safety Studies for Wind Turbine Towers 481
22.3.1 Wind Turbine Tower Structural Performances
Under Wind and Seismic Loads 481
22.3.2
Health Monitoring and Vibration Control
of Wind Turbine Towers
22.4 Summary 485
Acknowledgments 486
References 486
23. Wind Turbines and Landscape
Marc van Grieken and Beatrice Dower
23.1 A Passion for Landscape 493
23.2 What Is Landscape? 493
23.3 Changing Landscape 495
23.3.1 People’s Opinions 495
23.4 Technological Advancement 498
23.5 The Perception of Wind Farms 502
23.5.1 Height and Size 502
xiv Contents
23.5.2 Composition 504
23.5.3 Movement 504
23.6 Landscapes With Power Generation Objects 506
23.7 What Are the Effects of Wind Farms on Our Landscape? 508
23.7.1 Landscape Effects 509
23.7.2 Visual Effects 511
23.7.3 Landscape and Visual Effects 512
23.8 Mitigation 512
23.8.1 Strategic Approach 513
23.9 Conclusion 514
References 515
24. Global Rare Earth Supply, Life Cycle Assessment,
and Wind Energy
Zhehan Weng and Gavin M. Mudd
24.1 Background of Rare Earth Elements 517
24.2 Global REE Supply 519
24.3 REE Permanent Magnets 520
24.4 Life Cycle Assessment of the Use of REE Magnets
in Wind Turbines 522
24.5 Global Wind Energy Projections 526
24.6 Implications for Future REE Supply 529
24.7 Conclusion 531
References 532
Part VI
Financial Modeling/Wind Economics
25. Economics of Wind Power Generation
Magdi Ragheb
25.1 Introduction 537
25.2 Economic Considerations 537
25.3 Wind Energy Cost Analysis 539
25.4 Levelized Cost of Electricity 539
25.5 Net Present Value 540
25.6 Straight Line Depreciation 541
25.7 Price and Cost Concepts 542
25.8 Wind Turbines Prices 542
25.9 Intermittence Factor 542
25.10 Land Rents, Royalties, and Project Profitability 543
25.11 Project Lifetime 543
25.12 Benchmark Wind Turbine Present Value Cost Analysis 544
25.12.1 Investment 544
25.12.2 Payments 544
25.12.3 Current Income and Expenditures per Year 544
Contents xv
25.13 Incentives and Subsidies 546
25.13.1 Production Tax Credit (PTC) 546
25.13.2 Investment Tax Credit (ITC) 546
25.13.3 Renewable Energy Production Incentive (REPI) 547
25.14 Wind Turbine Present Value Cost Analysis Accounting
for the PTC 548
25.14.1 Payments 548
25.14.2 Current Income and Expenditures per Year 548
25.15 Accounting for the PTC as Well as Depreciation
and Taxes 550
25.16 Transmission and Grid Issues 553
25.17 Discussion 554
References 554
Part VII
Investment, Growth Trends, and the Future of
Wind Energy
26. Growth Trends and the Future of Wind Energy
Lauha Fried, Shruti Shukla, and Steve Sawyer
26.1 Introduction: Global Status of Wind Power
(On- and Offshore) in 2015 559
26.1.1 Asia: Remarkable Year for China 560
26.1.2 North America: Resurgence in the United States 562
26.1.3 Europe: Unparalleled Year for Germany 563
26.1.4
Latin America and the Caribbean: Brazil Continues
to Lead
26.1.5 Pacific 565
26.1.6 Africa and the Middle East 566
26.1.7 2015: Extraordinary Year Fueled by China’s
FIT Reduction Plan 566
26.2 Offshore Wind Energy 567
26.2.1 Europe Passes 11 GW Mark 570
26.2.2 UK Remains Largest Global Market 573
26.2.3 Germany Had an Exceptional Year 573
26.2.4 Netherlands: Fourth Largest Market Globally 57
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